disadvantages of animal studies in psychology

Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies). However, positive findings were found in depression using the POMS by a different study [13]. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting information files. For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Guest [13] used the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], finding less overall mood disturbance, less tension, and less confusion 3-months after hearing dog placement. The three Rs are: Reduction, Refinement . Brought to you by Sciencing Unnecessary Cruelty Animal rights advocates argue that testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary. An important finding from this review was that most positive findings were reported in published studies, while unpublished theses were more likely to report null findings. Future research is necessary to determine if in fact some measures are inappropriate to measure change following an assistance dog, which may be addressed using interviewing and focus group techniques among assistance dog handlers. Lethality as a side-effect - mortality in animals is often the result of lack of food and water, and is not only the primary effect of the substance being studied. The search strategy was adapted to the other databases, including mapping terms to each databases thesaurus or prescribed vocabulary, as appropriate. In fact, positive findings were identified in all domains and sub-domains of psychosocial health and wellbeing. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. The authors concluded that although results are promising, conclusions drawn from the results must be considered with caution [9]. Other studies found increased social connectedness 3-months after receiving a mobility or hearing dog [31] and increased community integration 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after receiving a mobility service dog [14]. Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. However, when more than one few companies uses the same resources and provide competitive parity are also known as rare resources. Most longitudinal studies (8/12) assessed participants at two time points: at baseline prior to receiving an assistance dog, and an average of 5.8 +/- 3.3 months after participants received an assistance dog (range of 312 months follow-up). purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). Moderator analyses will be useful in determining the potential explanatory effects that handler-service dog relationships have on psychosocial outcomes. Samples ranged from 15% male to 85% male, with an average of 42% male participants across all studies. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. A study such as this not only helps us better understand how the brain works, but it also has enormous potential for developing treatments for people who have abnormal patterns of brain activity, such as those with epilepsy or Parkinsons disease. However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. Part of the justification for why nonhuman animals are studied in psychology has to do with the fact of evolution. What are the disadvantages of being an animal behaviorist . Our search procedure identified 24 articles containing 27 studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from a wide variety of human and assistance dog populations. The lack of guide dog-specific research is especially surprising given that guide dogs not only have the longest history of any type of assistance dog [61] but are also the most commonly placed assistance dog placed by professional facilities worldwide [2]. Ethical Considerations and Advances in the Understanding of Animal Cognition. Capitanio, J. In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. Studies are often described without specifying that they were animal studies. For the study of most cognitive functions, lesion studies in animals have and will likely continue to provide insights that cannot be obtained through research on humans. In the self-evaluation subcategory, 5/19 (26%) outcomes found a significant effect of having an assistance dog on standardized measures of self-esteem, self-concept, and other measures of self-evaluation. Animal models are used in experiments in the behavioural neurosciences that aim to contribute to the prevention and treatment of cognitive and affective disorders in human beings, such as anxiety and depression. Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, United States of America, Affiliation: The other five studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog [32], hearing dog [29, 32], or guide dog [38] on life satisfaction using SWLS. Even procedures as simple as drawing a blood sample or testing an animal on a cognitive task must be approved by the local IACUC before the work can begin. Ironically, those animals that are likely to be the best models for psychopathology are also likely to be considered the . Three studies found positive findings on measures of overall psychological wellbeing or psychosocial health, including increased psychological wellbeing 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog [14], and better overall psychosocial health in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16]. The most commonly used measure was the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique [CHART; 58] which assesses how people with disabilities function as active members of their communities. [17] found an effect of having an assistance dog on mental health. Only Vincent et al. The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. Promising areas include psychological wellbeing, emotional wellbeing, and social participation in which several positive outcomes were identified. While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. Because medical service dogs are a relatively new category of assistance dog placements [2], there has been less research on the psychosocial effects of medical alert and response service dogs on their handlers. To be sure, each species has its own specializations that enable it to fit into its unique ecological niche; but common ancestry results in structural (e.g., brain) and functional (e.g., memory) processes that are remarkably similar between humans and nonhumans. The discussion section aims to review the findings from each aim and to provide targeted suggestions for future research. The complete MEDLINE search strategy, which was adapted for the other databases, is shown in S1 Table. Neuron. Using the Reintegration to Normal Living Index [RNLI; 59], Hubert found improvements in the ability to return to normal life after 7-months with a mobility service dog while Vincent et al. Other studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog on quality of life including more specific measures such as physical and environmental quality of life [33, 34]. At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability. The five studies which found that pet owners were less depressed had, on average, many fewer participants (Mean = 401 subjects ) than the studies that found no difference in depression rates (Mean . Our first aim was to describe study characteristics of the literature. Seven studies (26%) had sample sizes less than or equal to N = 20, all of which were longitudinal. To describe study characteristics, extracted items included participant characteristics (sample size, age, gender, country of origin), assistance dog characteristics (type and provider), and details of the study (design, measurement time points, comparison conditions). Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). The concept of a Regional Innovation Ecosystem (RIE) has gained significant attention in the academic literature and policy arena in recent years [1,2].Based on the inspiration of the natural ecosystem, the RIE was first introduced by Moore in 1993 as a framework for understanding the dynamics of innovation within a specific region [].The RIE can be considered analogous to a natural ecosystem . Of the 100 null comparisons, 43 (43%) were from published papers and 57 (57%) were from unpublished theses. Finally, its important to note that animal research in the United States is very tightly regulated by a series of federal and state laws, policies and regulations, dating back to the landmark Animal Welfare Act from 1966. Most articles were published in the 2010s, indicating an increasing publication interest in this topic over time. On the other hand, Spence [34] found no improvement to a composite score of psychological health 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog. Summary of methodological rating scores by each of the N = 27 individual studies. The first emphasizes that the welfare of animals is important in its own right and that animals must be treated humanely. Using another measure of energy and fatigue, Craft [40] found no difference in those with or without a mobility service dog. Of the 44 positive comparisons, 36 (82%) were from published papers and 8 (18%) were from unpublished theses. Secondly, many studies did not report sufficient detail in results in terms of estimates of variability and effect size. Advantages and disadvantages of animal models commonly used for | Download Scientific Diagram Advantages and disadvantages of various animal models in biomedical | Download Scientific Diagram Finally, one of the most notable examples of poor methodological reporting across studies was the omission of information regarding assistance dogs sources (e.g. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. Only a single study [16] assessed outcomes from child participants under the age of 18 (an additional study [38] had a minimum inclusion age of 16, but the youngest participant was 19). In one example, four studies included in this review failed to find significant results in comparisons of depression using the CES-D [28, 3941]. Exclusions included those based on population, outcomes, and methodology. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. Finally, information regarding the ethical and regulatory environments in which animal research is conducted is covered in a superficial manner or omitted altogether. To achieve the third aim of the reviewto summarize outcomespsychosocial outcomes within each study were extracted. Future studies should provide detailed researcher-specified criteria for participation as well as organizational-specified criteria for placing/receiving an assistance dog, if applicable. A total of 30% of comparisons made were positive in which having an assistance dog was associated with improved psychosocial functioning among individuals with disabilities. Other countries where studies took place included Canada (3), Japan (2), New Zealand (1), and Sweden (1). Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. [14] which found significantly higher internal locus of control 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog. However, Lundqvist et al. However, this research is not only widely disparate but, despite its growth, has not been reviewed since 2012. Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20 th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research , .Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, including a series of medical . Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks don't give the full picture of animal research. Hall et al. found better social functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16] while Guest found improved social functioning 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. [35] found increased SF-36 health transition scores after 3-months of having a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Guest [13] found an increase in general health 3-months after receiving a hearing dog using the 30-item General Health Questionnaire [GHQ-30; 48]. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Study characteristics of N = 27 studies separated by longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, ordered by publication year. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. performing mobility-related tasks such as pulling a wheelchair or retrieving dropped items), individuals with medical conditions (e.g. Experiments can take place to determine if a product or idea will work as intended. In addition, reporting detailed information on assistance dogs allows for the consideration of the dogs as individual agents in the therapeutic process rather than as uniform tools [1, 74]. Table 5 displays all quality of life outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of overall quality of life, life satisfaction, and independence. Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46]. An important question for the field moving forward will be to determine for whom an assistance dog may confer the most significant psychosocial health benefits for, and under what contexts or conditions. Purdue University Libraries, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. [15] found improvements to daily work activities 3- and 12-months after receiving mobility service dog (but not in self-care or dealing with life events). The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. [43] found that individuals who had guide dogs reported less stress while walking, but not while using public transportation. [17] found better functioning among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group. Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. Future research will benefit from stronger methodological rigor and reporting to account for heterogeneity in both humans and assistance dogs as well as continued high-quality replication. To examine the relationship between methodological rigor score and year of publication as well as sample size, bivariate correlations were performed. In a few instances, they represent the only reasonable approach. Other null findings included no effect of having a guide dog on social conflict stress and interactions with others [42], no improvement in social relationships 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and null findings regarding self-reported friendship and companionship with a mobility or medical service dog [16] or 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28]. Using other standardized measures of independence, Matsunaka & Koda [42] found that those with guide dogs reported and lower stress while being mobile. The findings from Lorenz's research (as outlined below) offers support for the idea that infants have an attachment gene and that they imprint on a caregiver not long after birth. As a final consideration, it is possible that assistance dogs may not confer significant psychosocial benefits as quantified by some of the standardized measures used. Most studies (17/27; 63%) recruited from a single assistance dog provider organization, while the remaining studies recruited from a range of providers (7/27; 26%) or did not report the source of the assistance dogs in the study (3/27; 11%). In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. Animal models are a fundamental tool in the life sciences. For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? A common argument against the use of animals in experiments is that animals are not good models for humans, based on the observation that we are not simply larger versions of lab rats - our bodies (and minds) work differently. Neither of these early reviews employed a formal methodological assessment of studies, but limitations were listed for each included study. Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. Ten years from now, students may very well read in their textbooks about a new treatment to help people with Parkinsons disease. In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54], Vincent et al. Center for the Human-Animal Bond, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America, Current address: Human-Animal Bond in Colorado, School of Social Work, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America, Affiliation: A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? The third aim of the review was to summarize psychosocial outcomes of studies. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. This poses a severe threat to the validity of findings as group differences in outcomes could be caused by underlying differences in certain demographics or characteristics and cannot be confidently attributed to the presence of the assistance dog. While there are no legal requirements specifying that an assistance dog must be certified, registered, or receive any specialized training to receive public access rights, independent organizations such as ADI, the International Association of Assistance Dog Partners (IAADP), and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) define a set of minimum training and behavior standards for public access that help guide the assistance dog industry. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [16, 35], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. This systematic review identified 24 articles containing 27 studies that assessed a psychosocial outcome of having an assistance dog (guide dog, hearing dog, mobility service dog, or medical service dog). Research has indicated that beyond the physical or tangible benefits that an assistance dog is trained to provide (e.g. Researchers who study nonhumans recognize that their studies may involve certain harms that can range from the relatively minor (e.g., drawing a blood sample) to the more serious (e.g., neurosurgery). On the other hand, Donovan [28] found no change in emotional functioning 4-months after receiving mobility service dog. Research in the field of human-animal interaction (HAI) and assistance dogs is not only rapidly growing but is often disparately published across multidisciplinary journals and outlets. This practice was instrumental in our evolution and in the emergence of civilization. In the next sub-category, six studies assessed life satisfaction outcomes using Satisfaction with Life Scale [SWLS; 57]. In this review, we have provided a primer on permanent and reversible lesion techniques currently in use in animal research, and a brief discussion of how they might . Finally, Rodriguez et al. Jamie Greer, In particular, not only did studies vary largely in terms of sample size, but they also varied in the manner in which statistical analyses were conducted. The specific aims were to (1) describe the key characteristics of studies (2) evaluate the methodological rigor of studies (3) summarize outcomes. Assistance dog placements and roles have grown rapidly in recent decades, especially in the United States, Canada, and Europe [2]. alerting or responding to medical crises such hypoglycemia or seizures), and individuals with mental health disorders (e.g. Some connect animal testing to racism or sexism, arguing that all living creatures are worthy of respect and that making animals suffer for any reason is morally wrong. Animal experimentation, also called animal testing, has contributed to many important scientific and medical discoveries. As mentioned above, a surprisingly high number of studies did not ensure that assistance dog and control groups were statistically equal across demographic and disability characteristics prior to outcome analyses. Overall, sample sizes were higher than what is usually observed in targeted animal-assisted intervention studies with dogs (e.g. Six comparisons were made to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on clinical measures of depression or anxiety. Still, some harms will remain, and ethically, one must weigh those harms against the potential benefits (for humans and for the animals themselves) to be obtained from the research. Within cross-sectional studies, number of years since first partnering with an assistance dog ranged from 6-months to 45 years with means ranging from 29 years. In methods sections, only 16/27 (59%) of studies indicated whether ethical approval for conducting human subjects research was sought and received. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. [35] found no improvement 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, Donovan [28] found no improvement 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and Shintani et al. Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. [35] found higher health-related quality of life 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog on one of three measures used [EuroQol Visual Analog Scale; 56]. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, a United States law, an assistance dog must do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability in order to receive public access rights [4]. This page has been archived and is no longer being updated regularly. To date, there have been several reviews summarizing the literature on the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs on their handlers. He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. The only other positive outcome was from Allen et al. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions). The study of nonhuman animals has actually played a huge role in psychology, and it continues to do so today. Regarding sleep, Guest found better self-reported sleep quality 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog while Rodriguez et al. However, 2 studies found worse occupational functioning in terms of employment, schooling, or homemaking. Yarmolkevich [46] found a significant effect of having a guide dog on positive affect using the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience [SPANE; 49] compared to a control group, while others studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39] on affect via the Positive and Negative Affect Scale [PANAS; 50]. Undergraduates sometimes ask what the value of animal research is in psychology. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. Lack of control: Another downside is that the experimenter cannot control for outside variables. Inconsistencies in findings were discussed in terms of wide variability in assessment times, interventions, measures, and rigor, and recommendations were made to contribute to the knowledge of this growing application of the human-animal bond. These 18 studies recruited study populations with a range of physical impairments including para- or quadriplegia, musculoskeletal disorders, and neuromuscular disorders.

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